Sit Less, Move More!? A Pilot Study on the Effectiveness of a National School-Based Physical Activity Program
Fabienne Egger , Marion Gasser , Mario Kamer , Mirko Schmidt
In recent years, children and adolescents have spent more time sitting and engaging in less physical activity than recommended by health authorities. .
- Pub. date: September 15, 2024
- Pages: 159-174
- 90 Downloads
- 283 Views
- 0 Citations
In recent years, children and adolescents have spent more time sitting and engaging in less physical activity than recommended by health authorities. Despite widespread efforts to promote physical activity through school-based programs, the impact of specific intervention programs often remains untested. Therefore, in this pilot study, the effects of a national school-based physical activity program were assessed. A sample of 80 first- and second-grade primary school students aged between 7 and 9 years (M = 7.95, SD = 0.44) of eight classes was cluster randomly assigned to either the experimental group (EG; classroom-based physical activity breaks) or the control group (CG; conventional school lessons). Primary outcomes included objective measurements of sedentary behaviour, step counts, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during the intervention. Secondary outcomes encompassed assessments of aerobic fitness performance, executive functions, academic achievement, and scholastic well-being before and after the 20-week intervention. The results indicate that students of the EG spent less time sedentary and took more steps during school mornings than their counterparts of the CG. The physical activity program resulted in a 630-step increase and a 10-minute reduction in sitting time daily. However, there were no effects on MVPA level, aerobic fitness performance, or cognitive functions (including executive functions and academic achievement). The implications of these findings are discussed in light of comprehensive school physical activity approaches.
classroom based physical activity breaks program effectiveness cognitive and mental health moderate to vigorous physical activity mvpa
Keywords: Classroom-based physical activity breaks, program effectiveness, cognitive and mental health, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).
0
References
Amor-Barbosa, M., Ortega-Martínez, A., Carrasco-Uribarren, A., & Bagur-Calafat, M. C. (2022). Active school-based interventions to interrupt prolonged sitting improve daily physical activity: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(22), Article 15409. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215409
Andermo, S., Hallgren, M., Nguyen, T.-T.-D., Jonsson, S., Petersen, S., Friberg, M., Romqvist, A., Stubbs, B., & Elinder, L. S. (2020). School-related physical activity interventions and mental health among children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine - Open, 6, Article 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-020-00254-x
Anzeneder, S., Zehnder, C., Martin-Niedecken, A. L., Schmidt, M., & Benzing, V. (2023). Acute exercise and children’s cognitive functioning: What is the optimal dose of cognitive challenge? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 66, Article 102404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102404
Anzeneder, S., Zehnder, C., Schmid, J., Martin-Niedecken, A. L., Schmidt, M., & Benzing, V. (2023). Dose-response relation between the duration of a cognitively challenging bout of physical exercise and children's cognition. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 33(8), 1439–1451. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14370
Bailey, D. H., Duncan, G. J., Cunha, F., Foorman, B. R., & Yeager, D. S. (2020). Persistence and fade-out of educational-intervention effects: Mechanisms and potential solutions. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 21(2), 55–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100620915848
Bailey, R., Vašíčková, J., Vlček, P., Raya Demidoff, A., Pühse, U., Heck, S., & Scheuer, C. (2022). An international review of the contributions of school-based physical activity, physical education, and school sport to the promotion of health-enhancing physical activity. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.5899571
Beets, M. W., Okely, A., Weaver, R. G., Webster, C., Lubans, D., Brusseau, T., Carson, R., & Cliff, D. P. (2016). The theory of expanded, extended, and enhanced opportunities for youth physical activity promotion. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 13, Article 120. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-016-0442-2
Biddle, S. J. H., Ciaccioni, S., Thomas, G., & Vergeer, I. (2019). Physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents: An updated review of reviews and an analysis of causality. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 42, 146–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.08.011
Boudreau, B., & Poulin, C. (2009). An examination of the validity of the Family Affluence Scale II (FAS II) in a general adolescent population of Canada. Social Indicators Research, 94, 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-008-9334-4
Bringolf-Isler, B., Probst-Hensch, N., Kayser, B., & Suggs, S. (2016). Schlussbericht zur SOPHYA-Studie [Final report on the SOPHYA study]. Swiss tropical and public health institute. https://bit.ly/3MFskWj
Carson, R. L., Castelli, D. M., Beighle, A., & Erwin, H. (2014). School-based physical activity promotion: A conceptual framework for research and practice. Childhood Obesity, 10(2), 100–106. https://doi.org/10.1089/chi.2013.0134
Chaput, J.-P., Willumsen, J., Bull, F., Chou, R., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Jago, R., Ortega, F. B., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2020). 2020 WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour for children and adolescents aged 5-17 years: Summary of the evidence. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 17, Article 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01037-z
Corder, K., Winpenny, E., Love, R., Brown, H. E., White, M., & van Sluijs, E. (2019). Change in physical activity from adolescence to early adulthood: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(8), 496–503. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-097330
Crocker, P. R. E., Bailey, D. A., Faulkner, R. A., Kowalski, K. C., & McGrath, R. (1997). Measuring general levels of physical activity: Preliminary evidence for the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29(10), 1344–1349. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199710000-00011
Daly-Smith, A. J., Zwolinsky, S., McKenna, J., Tomporowski, P. D., Defeyter, M. A., & Manley, A. (2018). Systematic review of acute physically active learning and classroom movement breaks on children’s physical activity, cognition, academic performance and classroom behaviour: Understanding critical design features. BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, 4(1), Article e000341. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2018-000341
Daly-Smith, A., Morris, J. L., Norris, E., Williams, T. L., Archbold, V., Kallio, J., Tammelin, T. H., Singh, A., Mota, J., von Seelen, J., Pesce, C., Salmon, J., McKay, H., Bartholomew, J., & Resaland, G. K. (2021). Behaviours that prompt primary school teachers to adopt and implement physically active learning: A meta synthesis of qualitative evidence. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 18, Article 151. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-021-01221-9
da Silva Bento, A. F. P., Páez, L. C., & de Mendonça Raimundo, A. M. (2021). School-based high-intensity interval training programs for promoting physical activity and fitness in adolescents: A systematic review. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 41(2), 288–300. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2020-0187
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Dösegger, A., Ruch, N., Jimmy, G., Braun-Fahrländer, C., Mäder, U., Hänggi, J., Puder, J. J., Kriemler, S., & Bringolf-Isler, B. (2014). Reactivity to accelerometer measurement of children and adolescents. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 46(6), 1140–1146. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000215
Drummy, C., Murtagh, E. M., McKee, D. P., Breslin, G., Davison, G. W., & Murphy, M. H. (2016). The effect of a classroom activity break on physical activity levels and adiposity in primary school children. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 52(7), 745–749. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpc.13182
Edwardson, C. L., & Gorely, T. (2010). Activity-related parenting practices and children’s objectively measured physical activity. Pediatric Exercise Science, 22(1), 105–113. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.22.1.105
Egan, C. A., Webster, C. A., Beets, M. W., Weaver, R. G., Russ, L., Michael, D., Nesbitt, D., & Orendorff, K. L. (2019). Sedentary time and behavior during school: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Health Education, 50(5), 283–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2019.1642814
Egger, F., Conzelmann, A., & Schmidt, M. (2018). The effect of acute cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children's executive functions: Too much of a good thing? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 36, 178–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.02.014
Egger, F., Benzing, V., Conzelmann, A., & Schmidt, M. (2019). Boost your brain, while having a break! The effects of long-term cognitively engaging physical activity breaks on children’s executive functions and academic achievement. PLoS ONE, 14(3), Article e0212482. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212482
Eriksen, B. A., & Eriksen, C. W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target in a nonsearch task. Perception and Psychophysics, 16, 143–149. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203267
Farooq, A., Martin, A., Janssen, X., Wilson, M. G., Gibson, A.-M., Hughes, A., & Reilly, J. J. (2020). Longitudinal changes in moderate‐to‐vigorous‐intensity physical activity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Obesity Reviews, 21(1), Article e12953. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12953
Feller, R., Lussi, I., Wicki, W., Näpflin, C., & Stoffel, S. K. (2021). Evaluation «schule bewegt»: Für mehr Bewegung in Schweizer Schulen. Evaluation 2018–2020 [Evaluation of «school on the move»: For more exercise in Swiss schools. Evaluation 2018–2020]. Gesundheitsförderung Schweiz [Health Promotion Switzerland].
Fidell, L. S., & Tabachnik, B. G. (2003). Preparatory data analysis. In A. Schinka & W. F. Velicer (Eds.), Handbook of psychology (2nd ed., pp. 115–141). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471264385.wei0205
Freedson, P., Pober, D., & Janz, K. F. (2005). Calibration of accelerometer output for children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(11), 523–530. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.mss.0000185658.28284.ba
Grao‐Cruces, A., Segura‐Jiménez, V., Conde‐Caveda, J., García‐Cervantes, L., Martínez‐Gómez, D., Keating, X. D., & Castro‐Piñero, J. (2019). The role of school in helping children and adolescents reach the physical activity recommendations: The UP&DOWN study. Journal of School Health, 89(8), 612–618. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12785
Guthold, R., Stevens, G. A., Riley, L. M., & Bull, F. C. (2020). Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: A pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1.6 million participants. The Lancet. Child and Adolescent Health, 4(1), 23–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30323-2
Haffner, J., Baro, K., Parzer, P., & Resch, F. (2005). Heidelberger Rechentest (HRT 1-4) [Heidelberg Arithmetic Test 1-4]. Hogrefe.
Hascher, T. (2004). Wohlbefinden in der Schule [Scholastic well-being]. Waxmann.
Himes, J. H. (2009). Challenges of accurately measuring and using BMI and other indicators of obesity in children. Pediatrics, 124(Sup_1), 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-3586D
Holt, A.-D., Smedegaard, S., Pawlowski, C. S., Skovgaard, T., & Christiansen, L. B. (2019). Experimental’ experiences of autonomy, competence and relatedness in ‘Move for Well-being in Schools’: A physical activity intervention. European Physical Education Review, 25(3), 640–658. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X18758353
Howell, D. C. (2020). Statistical methods for psychology. Cengage Learning.
Hox, J. J., Moerbeek, M., & van de Schoot, R. (2018). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Hynynen, S.‑T., van Stralen, M. M., Sniehotta, F. F., Araújo-Soares, V., Hardeman, W., Chinapaw, M. J. M., Vasankari, T., & Hankonen, N. (2016). A systematic review of school-based interventions targeting physical activity and sedentary behaviour among older adolescents. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(1), 22–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2015.1081706
Jäger, K., Schmidt, M., Conzelmann, A., & Roebers, C. M. (2015). The effects of qualitatively different acute physical activity interventions in real-world settings on executive functions in preadolescent children. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 9, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2015.05.002
Jones, D., Innerd, A., Giles, E. L., & Azevedo, L. B. (2020). Association between fundamental motor skills and physical activity in the early years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 9(6), 542–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jshs.2020.03.001
Kallio, P., Pahkala, K., Heinonen, O. J., Tammelin, T. H., Pälve, K., Hirvensalo, M., Juonala, M., Loo, B.-M., Magnussen, C. G., Rovio, S., Helajärvi, H., Laitinen, T. P., Jokinen, E., Tossavainen, P., Hutri-Kähönen, N., Viikari, J., & Raitakari, O. T. (2021). Physical inactivity from youth to adulthood and adult cardiometabolic risk profile. Preventive Medicine, 145, Article 106433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106433
Kowalski, K. C., Crocker, P. R. E., & Donen, R. M. (2004). The Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C) and Adolescents (PAQ-A) manual. University of Saskatchewan. https://bit.ly/4epTnRj
Kriemler, S., Meyer, U., Martin, E., van Sluijs, E. M. F., Andersen, L. B., & Martin, B. W. (2011). Effect of school-based interventions on physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents: A review of reviews and systematic update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45(11), 923–930. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2011-090186
Kromeyer-Hauschild, K., Wabitsch, M., Kunze, D., Geller, F., Geiss, H. C., Hesse, V., von Hippel, A., Jaeger, U., Johnsen, D., Korte, W., Menner, K., Müller, G., Müller, J. M., Niemann-Pilatus, A., Remer, T., Schaefer, F., Wittchen, H.‑U., Zabransky, S., Zellner, K., … Hebebrand, J. (2001). Perzentile für den Body-mass-Index für das Kindes- und Jugendalter unter Heranziehung verschiedener deutscher Stichproben [Percentiles for body mass index in childhood and adolescence based on various German samples]. Monatsschrift Kinderheilkunde, 149, 807–818. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001120170107
Kuhn, A. P., Kim, E., Lane, H. G., Wang, Y., Deitch, R., Turner, L., Hager, E. R., & Parker, E. A. (2021). Associations between elementary and middle school teachers' physical activity promoting practices and teacher- and school-level factors. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 18, Article 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-021-01129-4
Kuzik, N., da Costa, B. G. G., Hwang, Y., Verswijveren, S. J. J. M., Rollo, S., Tremblay, M. S., Bélanger, S., Carson, V., Davis, M., Hornby, S., Huang, W. Y., Law, B., Salmon, J., Tomasone, J. R., Wachira, L.-J., Wijndaele, K., & Saunders, T. J. (2022). School-related sedentary behaviours and indicators of health and well-being among children and youth: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 19, Article 40. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-022-01258-4
Léger, L. A., Mercier, D., Gadoury, C., & Lambert, J. (1988). The multistage 20 metre shuttle run test for aerobic fitness. Journal of Sports Sciences, 6(2), 93101. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640418808729800
Leahy, A. A., Mavilidi, M. F., Smith, J. J., Hillman, C. H., Eather, N., Barker, D., & Lubans, D. R. (2020). Review of high-intensity interval training for cognitive and mental health in youth. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 52(10), 2224–2234. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000002359
Liu, N. Y.-S., Plowman, S. A., & Looney, M. A. (1992). The reliability and validity of the 20-meter Shuttle Test in American students 12 to 15 years old. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63(4), 360–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1992.10608757
Love, R., Adams, J., & van Sluijs, E. M. F. (2019). Are school‐based physical activity interventions effective and equitable? A meta‐analysis of cluster randomized controlled trials with accelerometer‐assessed activity. Obesity Reviews, 20(6), 859–870. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12823
Lubans, D. R., Eather, N., Smith, J. J., Beets, M. W., & Harris, N. K. (2022). Scaling-up adolescent high-intensity interval training programs for population health. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 50(3), 128–136. https://doi.org/10.1249/JES.0000000000000287
Madan, C. R., & Singhal, A. (2012). Encoding the world around us: Motor-related processing influences verbal memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 21(3), 1563–1570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2012.07.006
Mao, F., Huang, F., Zhao, S., & Fang, Q. (2024). Effects of cognitively engaging physical activity interventions on executive function in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, Article 1454447. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1454447
Martin-Martinez, C., Valenzuela, P. L., Martinez-Zamora, M., & Martinez-de-Quel, Ó. (2023). School-based physical activity interventions and language skills: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 26(2), 140–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2022.12.007
Masini, A., Ceciliani, A., Dallolio, L., Gori, D., & Marini, S. (2022). Evaluation of feasibility, effectiveness, and sustainability of school-based physical activity “active break” interventions in pre-adolescent and adolescent students: A systematic review. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 113, 713–725. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-022-00652-6
Masini, A., Marini, S., Gori, D., Leoni, E., Rochira, A., & Dallolio, L. (2020). Evaluation of school-based interventions of active breaks in primary schools: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 23(4), 377–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2019.10.008
Mavilidi, M. F., Ruiter, M., Schmidt, M., Okely A. D., Loyens, S., Chandler, P., & Paas, F. (2018). A narrative review of school-based physical activity for enhancing cognition and learning: The importance of relevancy and integration. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2079. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02079
May, v. P., Malitzky, V., & Vieluf, U. (2018). Hamburger Schreib-Probe 1-10 [The Hamburg Writing Sample 1-10]. Ernst Klett Verlag.
Mayringer, H. & Wimmer, H. (2003). Salzburger Lesescreening für die Klassenstufen 1-4 [The Salzburg Reading Screening]. Huber.
McMullen, J. M., Kallio, J., & Tammelin, T. H. (2022). Physical activity opportunities for secondary school students: International best practices for whole-of-school physical activity programs. European Physical Education Review, 28(4), 890–905. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X221092281
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "Frontal Lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Montgomery, D. C. (2013). Design and analysis of experiments. John Wiley & Sons.
Naylor, P.‑J., & McKay, H. A. (2009). Prevention in the first place: Schools a setting for action on physical inactivity. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 43(1), 10–13. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2008.053447
Naylor, P.‑J., Nettlefold, L., Race, D., Hoy, C., Ashe, M. C., Higgins, J. W., & McKay, H. A. (2015). Implementation of school based physical activity interventions: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine, 72, 95–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.12.034
Neil-Sztramko, S. E., Caldwell, H., & Dobbins, M. (2021). School-based physical activity programs for promoting physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents aged 6 to 18. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 9, Article CD007651. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007651.pub3
Papadopoulos, N., Mantilla, A., Bussey, K., Emonson, C., Olive, L., McGillivray, J., Pesce, C., Lewis, S., & Rinehart, N. (2022). Understanding the benefits of brief classroom‐based physical activity interventions on primary school‐aged children's enjoyment and subjective wellbeing: A systematic review. Journal of School Health, 92(9), 916–932. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13196
Pate, R. R., Davis, M. G., Robinson, T. N., Stone, E. J., McKenzie, T. L., & Young, J. C. (2006). Promoting physical activity in children and youth: A leadership role for schools: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on nutrition, physical activity, and metabolism (physical activity committee) in collaboration with the Councils on cardiovascular disease in the young and cardiovascular nursing. Circulation, 114(11), 1214–1224. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.177052
Pesce, C., Crova, C., Marchetti, R., Struzzolino, I., Masci, I., Vannozzi, G., & Forte, R. (2013). Searching for cognitively optimal challenge point in physical activity for children with typical and atypical motor development. Mental Health and Physical Activity, 6(3), 172–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2013.07.001
Rafferty, R., Breslin, G., Brennan, D., & Hassan, D. (2016). A systematic review of school-based physical activity interventions on children's wellbeing. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 9(1), 215–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1164228
Robles-Campos, A., Zapata-Lamana, R., Gutiérrez, M. A., Cigarroa, I., Nazar, G., Salas-Bravo, C., Sanchez-Lopez, M., & Reyes-Molina, D. (2023). Psychological outcomes of classroom-based physical activity interventions in children 6-to 12-year-olds: A scoping review. Retos: Nuevas Tendencias en Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, 48, 388–400.
Rodriguez-Ayllon, M., Cadenas-Sánchez, C., Estévez-López, F., Muñoz, N. E., Mora-Gonzalez, J., Migueles, J. H., Molina-García, P., Henriksson, H., Mena-Molina, A., Martínez-Vizcaíno, V., Catena, A., Löf, M., Erickson, K. I., Lubans, D. R., Ortega, F. B., & Esteban-Cornejo, I. Role of physical activity and sedentary behavior in the mental health of preschoolers, children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 49, 1383–1410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01099-5
Roebers, C. M., & Kauer, M. (2009). Motor and cognitive control in a normative sample of 7-year-olds. Developmental Science, 12(1), 175–181. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00755.x
Röthlisberger, M., Neuenschwander, R., Cimeli, P., Michel, E., & Roebers, C. M. (2012). Improving executive functions in 5- and 6-year-olds: Evaluation of a small group intervention in prekindergarten and kindergarten children. Infant and Child Development, 21(4), 411–429. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.752
Rowlands, A. V., Rennie, K., Kozarski, R., Stanley, R. M., Eston, R. G., Parfitt, G. C., & Olds, T. S. (2014). Children's physical activity assessed with wrist- and hip-worn accelerometers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 46(12), 2308–2316. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000365
Saint-Maurice, P. F., Bai, Y., Vazou, S., & Welk, G. (2018). Youth physical activity patterns during school and out-of-school time. Children, 5(9), Article 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/children5090118
Schmid, C., Zoelch, C., & Roebers, C. M. (2008). Das Arbeitsgedächtnis von 4- bis 5-jährigen Kindern [The working memory of 4- to 5-year-old children]. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 40(1), 2–12. https://doi.org/10.1026/0049-8637.40.1.2
Schmidt, M., Benzing, V., & Kamer, M. (2016). Classroom-based physical activity breaks and children's attention: Cognitive engagement works! Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1474. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01474
Schmidt, M., Benzing, V., Wallman-Jones, A., Mavilidi, M.‑F., Lubans, D. R., & Paas, F. (2019). Embodied learning in the classroom: Effects on primary school children’s attention and foreign language vocabulary learning. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 43, 45–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.12.017
Schmidt, M., Egger, F., Benzing, V., Jäger, K., Conzelmann, A., Roebers, C. M., & Pesce, C. (2017). Disentangling the relationship between children’s motor ability, executive function and academic achievement. PloS ONE, 12(8), Article e0182845. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182845
Schmidt, M., Jäger, K., Egger, F., Roebers, C. M., & Conzelmann, A. (2015). Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: A group-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37(6), 575–591. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0069
Schnohr, C. W., Makransky, G., Kreiner, S., Torsheim, T., Hofmann, F., de Clercq, B., Elgar, F. J., & Currie, C. (2013). Item response drift in the Family Affluence Scale: A study on three consecutive surveys of the health behaviour in school-aged children (HBSC) survey. Measurement, 46(9), 3119–3126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2013.06.016
Schüpbach, M., Wustmann, C., & Herzog, W. (2016). Entwicklung des schulischen Wohlbefindens in den ersten zwei Schuljahren: Welche Rolle spielen individuelle Schülerinnen- und Schülermarkmale? [Development of scholastic well-being in the first two school years: What role do individual student characteristics play?]. Unterrichtswissenschaft: Zeitschrift für Lernforschung, 44(3), 282–298.
Sember, V., Jurak, G., Kovač, M., Morrison, S. A., & Starc, G. (2020). Children's physical activity, academic performance, and cognitive functioning: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, Article 307. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00307
Sneck, S., Viholainen, H., Syväoja, H., Kankaapää, A., Hakonen, H., Poikkeus, A.‑M., & Tammelin, T. (2019). Effects of school-based physical activity on mathematics performance in children: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 16, Article 109. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0866-6
Spiegel, J. A., Goodrich, J. M., Morris, B. M., Osborne, C. M., & Lonigan, C. J. (2021). Relations between executive functions and academic outcomes in elementary school children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 147(4), 329–351. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000322
Steele, R. M., van Sluijs, E. M. F., Sharp, S. J., Landsbaugh, J. R., Ekelund, U., & Griffin, S. J. (2010). An investigation of patterns of children’s sedentary and vigorous physical activity throughout the week. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 7, Article 88. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-7-88
Stins, J. F., Polderman, J. C., Boomsma, D. I., & de Geus, E. J. C. (2005). Response interference and working memory in 12-year-old children. Child Neuropsychology, 11(2), 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/092970490911351
Stoepker, P., Dauenhauer, B., Carson, R. L., McMullen, J., & Moore, J. B. (2020). Becoming a physical activity leader (PAL): Skills, responsibilities, and training. Strategies, 34(1), 23–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2020.1841695
Sutherland, R. L., Campbell, E. M., Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Nathan, N. K., Wolfenden, L., Okely, A. D., Gillham, K. E., Hollis, J. L., Oldmeadow, C. J., Williams, A. J., Davies, L. J., Wiese, J. S., Bisquera, A., & Wiggers, J. H. (2016). The physical activity 4 everyone cluster randomized trial: 2-year outcomes of a school physical activity intervention among adolescents. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 51(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2016.02.020
Telama, R., Yang, X., Leskinen, E., Kankaanpää, A., Hirvensalo, M., Tammelin, T., Viikari, J. S. A., & S, Raitakari, O. T. (2014). Tracking of physical activity from early childhood through youth into adulthood. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 46(5), 955–962. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000000181
van Sluijs, E. M. F., Ekelund, U., Crochemore-Silva, I., Guthold, R., Ha, A., Lubans, D., Oyeyemi, A. L., Ding, D., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2021). Physical activity behaviours in adolescence: Current evidence and opportunities for intervention. The Lancet, 398(10298), 429–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01259-9
van Stralen, M. M., Yıldırım, M., Wulp, A., te Velde, S. J., Verloigne, M., Doessegger, A., Androutsos, O., Kovács, É., Brug, J., & Chinapaw, M. J. M. (2014). Measured sedentary time and physical activity during the school day of European 10- to 12-year-old children: The ENERGY project. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 17(2), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2013.04.019
Vazou, S., Webster, C. A., Stewart, G., Candal, P., Egan, C. A., Pennell, A., & Russ, L. B. (2020). A systematic review and qualitative synthesis resulting in a typology of elementary classroom movement integration Interventions. Sports Medicine - Open, 6, Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-019-0218-8
Webster, C. A., Beets, M., Weaver, R. G., Vazou, S., & Russ, L. (2015). Rethinking recommendations for implementing comprehensive school physical activity programs: A partnership model. Quest, 67(2), 185–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2015.1017588
Willoughby, M. T., Wylie, A. C., & Little, M. H. (2019). Testing longitudinal associations between executive function and academic achievement. Developmental Psychology, 55(4), 767–779. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000664
Wong, L. S., Gibson, A.-M., Farooq, A., & Reilly, J. J. (2021). Interventions to increase moderate‐to‐vigorous physical activity in elementary school physical education lessons: Systematic review. Journal of School Health, 91(10), 836–845. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.13070
Watson, A., Timperio, A., Brown, H., Best, K., & Hesketh, K. D. (2017). Effect of classroom-based physical activity interventions on academic and physical activity outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14, Article 114. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0569-9
World Health Organization. (2020). WHO Guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. https://bit.ly/3TsszHR
Zhang, J., Yang, S. X., Wang, L., Han, L. H., & Wu, X. Y. (2022). The influence of sedentary behaviour on mental health among children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 306, 90–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.018